Electronics & Embedded
Semiconductors, analog and digital design, microcontrollers, FPGAs and IoT.
104 topics: 36 beginner, 34 intermediate, 34 advanced.
About this discipline
Electronics turns the physics of semiconductors into circuits that amplify, switch, compute and communicate. Embedded systems combine these circuits with software, so a small device can sense, decide and act.
The course follows that path: semiconductors and diodes, transistors and amplifiers, op-amp circuits, digital logic, processors and microcontrollers, and finally embedded software, sensors, wireless links and chip design.
Who it is for
Electronics and embedded systems students, hardware and firmware engineers, and makers who want to understand why their circuits behave as they do.
How the levels build
Beginner topics cover semiconductors, diodes, transistors, op-amps and binary numbers. Intermediate topics cover digital logic, memory, converters, buses and microcontroller peripherals. Advanced topics cover RTOS, sensors, wireless IoT, signal integrity and chip design.
Use cases
- Building a sensor interface with an op-amp and an ADC.
- Writing firmware that reads a sensor and drives a motor with PWM.
- Choosing a logic level shifter when connecting 3.3 V and 5 V parts.
- Designing a battery-powered node that sleeps between readings.
Beginner Electronics & Embedded
Topic 1Atoms and energy bandsElectrons occupy bands; the gap between valence and conduction bands determines conductivity.Topic 2Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductorsDoping pure silicon with donors or acceptors creates n-type or p-type material.Topic 3PN junctionContact of p and n regions forms a depletion region that allows current mostly one way.Topic 4Diode characteristicsForward bias conducts above about 0.7 V for silicon; reverse bias blocks.Topic 5Rectifier circuitsHalf-wave, full-wave and bridge circuits convert AC to pulsating DC.Topic 6Filters and smoothingA capacitor reduces ripple after rectification.Topic 7Zener diode regulatorsOperate in breakdown to hold a nearly constant voltage.Topic 8LEDs and photodiodesLight-emitting diodes convert current to light; photodiodes convert light to current.Topic 9Bipolar junction transistorA small base current controls a larger collector current; IC=βIB.Topic 10BJT biasingSets the DC operating point so the transistor amplifies without distortion.Topic 11Transistor as a switchCut-off and saturation regions make a transistor a digital on-off device.Topic 12Common-emitter amplifierProvides voltage gain with phase inversion.Topic 13MOSFETA voltage-controlled field-effect transistor with high input impedance.Topic 14MOSFET regions of operationCut-off, triode and saturation define switch and amplifier behaviour.Topic 15CMOS inverterComplementary NMOS and PMOS pair gives logic with near-zero static power.Topic 16Small-signal modelsLinearised transistor models using gm and ro for AC analysis.Topic 17Operational amplifierHigh-gain differential amplifier used with feedback to build precise circuits.Topic 18Ideal op-amp rulesWith negative feedback, the inputs sit at the same voltage and draw no current.Topic 19Inverting and non-inverting amplifiersGain set by resistor ratios: -Rf/Rin and 1+Rf/Rg.Topic 20Summing and difference amplifiersCombine or subtract signals with resistor networks.Topic 21Integrator and differentiatorOp-amp circuits that perform calculus on signals.Topic 22Comparators and Schmitt triggersDecide if an input is above a threshold; hysteresis rejects noise.Topic 23Active filtersOp-amp filters give gain and sharp roll-off without inductors.Topic 24OscillatorsCircuits like Wien bridge and crystal oscillators generate periodic signals.Topic 25555 timerVersatile IC for timing, pulse generation and oscillation.Topic 26Feedback in amplifiersNegative feedback trades gain for stability, bandwidth and linearity.Topic 27Frequency response of amplifiersGain falls at low and high frequencies due to coupling capacitors and parasitics.Topic 28Power amplifiersClass A, B, AB and D trade efficiency against distortion.Topic 29Voltage regulatorsLinear and switching regulators maintain stable supply voltage.Topic 30Noise in electronicsThermal, shot and flicker noise limit the smallest detectable signals.Topic 31Grounding and PCB layoutGood layout reduces noise, crosstalk and EMI.Topic 32Printed circuit board designSchematic capture, placement and routing produce manufacturable boards.Topic 33DatasheetsContain absolute maximum ratings and characteristics necessary for safe component use.Topic 34Binary numbersDigital systems represent information using 0 and 1.Topic 35Number conversionsConvert among binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal.Topic 36Two's complementStandard way to represent signed integers in binary.
Intermediate Electronics & Embedded
Topic 37Logic gatesAND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR implement Boolean functions.Topic 38Boolean algebraRules to simplify logic expressions, including De Morgan's laws.Topic 39Karnaugh mapsGraphical technique to minimise logic functions.Topic 40Combinational circuitsOutput depends only on current inputs, such as adders and multiplexers.Topic 41Adders and subtractorsHalf and full adders implement binary arithmetic.Topic 42Multiplexers and decodersSelect data lines or decode binary addresses.Topic 43Flip-flopsSR, D, JK and T devices store one bit and change on clock edges.Topic 44Registers and countersGroups of flip-flops store data or count pulses.Topic 45Finite state machinesSequential logic modelled by states and transitions; Moore and Mealy types.Topic 46Timing: setup and holdData must be stable around the clock edge to be captured correctly.Topic 47Memory typesSRAM, DRAM, ROM and flash differ in speed, density and volatility.Topic 48Logic familiesTTL and CMOS differ in voltage levels, speed and power.Topic 49ADCAnalog-to-digital converters sample and quantise a signal; resolution is bits.Topic 50DACDigital-to-analog converters produce voltage from codes.Topic 51Sampling theoremSample at more than twice the highest frequency to avoid aliasing.Topic 52Hardware description languagesVHDL and Verilog describe digital hardware.Topic 53FPGAReconfigurable chips made from logic blocks and programmable routing.Topic 54ASIC design flowRTL, synthesis, place and route, verification and tape-out.Topic 55Microprocessor vs microcontrollerMCUs integrate CPU, memory and peripherals on one chip.Topic 56CPU architectureRegisters, ALU, control unit and buses execute instructions.Topic 57Instruction set architecturesThe programmer-visible instructions; examples include ARM, RISC-V and x86.Topic 58PipeliningOverlaps instruction stages to increase throughput.Topic 59Cache memorySmall fast memory exploiting locality to reduce average access time.Topic 60InterruptsHardware signals that pause the main program to run a handler.Topic 61GPIOProgrammable pins used as digital inputs or outputs.Topic 62Timers and countersPeripheral blocks for delays, PWM and event measurement.Topic 63PWMVarying duty cycle controls average power to motors and LEDs.Topic 64UARTAsynchronous serial communication with start and stop bits.Topic 65SPIFast synchronous serial bus with master, slave and chip select.Topic 66I2CTwo-wire bus with addressable devices and pull-up resistors.Topic 67CAN busRobust differential bus used in vehicles and industrial systems.Topic 68USB basicsA host-controlled serial bus supporting many device classes.Topic 69ADC peripherals and samplingConfigure sampling time, reference voltage and resolution.Topic 70DMADirect memory access moves data without CPU involvement.
Advanced Electronics & Embedded
Topic 71Embedded C programmingLow-level C with volatile, bit-masks and registers.Topic 72Memory-mapped I/OPeripherals appear as addresses in the memory map.Topic 73Bootloaders and startup codeInitialise stack, memory and clocks before main runs.Topic 74Power managementSleep modes and clock gating reduce energy for battery devices.Topic 75Watchdog timersReset the system if software stops responding.Topic 76Debugging toolsJTAG, SWD, logic analysers and oscilloscopes inspect running hardware.Topic 77Real-time operating systemsSchedulers guarantee tasks meet deadlines.Topic 78Task schedulingPriority-based pre-emptive scheduling, rate-monotonic and EDF algorithms.Topic 79Mutexes and semaphoresSynchronise tasks and protect shared resources.Topic 80Priority inversionA low-priority task blocks a high-priority one; solved by priority inheritance.Topic 81SensorsConvert physical quantities to electrical signals; temperature, pressure, accelerometers and more.Topic 82Signal conditioningAmplify, filter and level-shift sensor outputs before digitising.Topic 83ActuatorsMotors, solenoids and relays turn control signals into motion.Topic 84H-bridge motor driversFour switches reverse motor direction and control speed.Topic 85Wireless protocolsBLE, Wi-Fi, Zigbee and LoRa trade range, power and data rate.Topic 86Internet of ThingsNetworks of connected devices that sense, communicate and act.Topic 87MQTTLightweight publish-subscribe protocol for IoT.Topic 88Edge computingProcessing near the data source cuts latency and bandwidth.Topic 89TinyMLRunning machine-learning inference on microcontrollers.Topic 90Digital signal processorsSpecialised CPUs for fast multiply-accumulate operations.Topic 91Fixed-point arithmeticInteger scaled maths used on devices without a floating-point unit.Topic 92Embedded securitySecure boot, encryption and firmware signing protect devices.Topic 93Firmware over-the-air updatesRemote update with rollback improves maintenance.Topic 94Hardware-in-the-loop testingTests embedded controllers against simulated plants.Topic 95Design for testabilityAdd scan chains and test points to find manufacturing defects.Topic 96Signal integrityHigh-speed traces need impedance control and termination to avoid reflections.Topic 97Electromagnetic interference mitigationShielding, filtering and layout reduce emissions and susceptibility.Topic 98Analog-mixed-signal designCombines analog and digital blocks on one chip.Topic 99Phase-locked loopsFeedback circuits that lock an oscillator to a reference frequency.Topic 100SoC architecturesSystems on chip integrate processors, memory and peripherals with on-chip buses.Topic 101Low-power design techniquesVoltage scaling, power gating and duty cycling extend battery life.Topic 102Reliability and functional safetyStandards like ISO 26262 and IEC 61508 guide safe electronics design.Topic 103RISC-V open architectureAn open instruction set that anyone can implement and extend.Topic 104Chiplets and advanced packagingSplitting a design into dies connected in one package improves yield and flexibility.
Frequently asked questions
What is Electronics & Embedded?
Semiconductors, analog and digital design, microcontrollers, FPGAs and IoT.
How many topics are in Electronics & Embedded?
104 topics, ordered from beginner to advanced: 36 beginner, 34 intermediate and 34 advanced.
Where should a beginner start in Electronics & Embedded?
Start with "Atoms and energy bands" and work through the list in order. Each topic builds on the one before it.
Do I need to learn analogue or digital electronics first?
Learn the basics of diodes and transistors first, because both analogue and digital circuits rely on them. Then study op-amps and logic gates.
Why does my microcontroller reset when a motor starts?
A motor draws large current spikes that drop the supply. Decoupling capacitors, separate supplies and a good ground layout usually fix it.
What is the difference between a microcontroller and an FPGA?
A microcontroller runs software sequentially on a fixed processor. An FPGA builds custom hardware in parallel, which suits very fast or highly parallel tasks.
How do I avoid noise in a sensor circuit?
Keep analogue traces short, use a solid ground plane, filter the signal near the sensor and sample it at a rate that avoids aliasing.
Is embedded programming in C still common?
Yes. C remains the main language for firmware because it gives direct control of registers, timing and memory, though C++, Rust and MicroPython are also used.
Practise in the interactive course with quizzes, tests and labs.